Chapter-6- GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
The external forces are known as exogenic forces and the internal forces are known as endogenic
forces.
The actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations and
filling up (aggradation) of basins/ depressions, on the earth’s surface.
The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of the surface of the earth through
erosion is known as gradation.
The endogenic forces continuously elevate or build up parts of the earth’s surface and hence the
exogenic processes fail to even out the relief variations of the surface of the earth
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions
on earth materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the
surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes.
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic
processes.
Any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and
transporting earth materials can be called a geomorphic agent.
When these elements of nature become mobile due to gradients, they remove the
materials and transport them over slopes and deposit them at lower level.
Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents especially exogenic, unless stated
separately, are one and the same.
Gravity besides being a directional force activating all downslope movements of matter also
causes stresses on the earth’s materials. Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and tide
induced currents and winds.
Without gravity and gradients there would be no mobility and hence no erosion,
transportation and deposition are possible. So, gravitational stresses are as important as the
other geomorphic processes. Gravity is the force that is keeping us in contact with the surface
and it is the force that switches on the movement of all surface material on earth.
All the movements either within the earth or on the surface of the earth occur due to gradients
— from higher levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure areas etc.
ENDOGENIC P R O C E S S E S
The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic
processes. This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
primordial heat from the origin of the earth. This energy due to geothermal gradients and
heat flow from within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere. Due to
variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal thickness and strength,
the action of endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled original
crustal surface is uneven.
Diastrophism
All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under
diastrophism. They include: (i) orogenic processes involving mountain building through
severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust; (ii) epeirogenic processes
involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust; (iii) earthquakes involving local
relatively minor movements;
plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas epeirogeny is continental building
process.
Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be
faulting and fracturing of the crust. All these processes cause pressure, volume and
temperature (PVT) changes which in turn induce metamorphism of rocks.
Volcanism
Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface
and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate
energy from the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors processes and their
respective driving forces.
Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control various
processes.
All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation. The word
‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover. Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion and
transportation are included in denudation
Gravitational force acts upon all earth materials having a sloping surface and tend to
produce movement of matter in down slope direction. Force applied per unit area is called
stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing or pulling. This induces deformation. Forces
acting along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses (separating forces). It is this
stress that breaks rocks and other earth materials.
The shear stresses result in angular displacement or slippage.
molecular stresses that may be caused by a number of factors amongst which temperature
changes, crystallisation and melting are the most common.
Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of
soluble minerals or cementing materials. Thus,
the basic reason that leads to weathering, mass movements, and erosion is development of
stresses in the body of the earth materials.\
Different types of rocks with differences in their structure offer varying resistances to various
geomorphic processes
WEATHERING
Weathering is action of elements of weather and climate over earth materials. There are a
number of processes within weathering which act either individually or together to affect the
earth materials in order to reduce them to fragmental state.
Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decom position of
rocks through the actions of various elements of weather and climate.
As very little or no motion of materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site
process.
Weathering processes are conditioned by many complex geological, climatic, topographic and
vegetative factors. Climate is of particular importance. Not only weathering processes differ
from climate to climate, but also the depth of the weathering mantle
There are three major groups of weathering processes : (i) chemical; (ii) physical or mechanical;
(iii) biological weathering processes.
Chemical Weathering Processes
A group of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and
reduction act on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state
through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface and/or soil water and other acids.
Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat must be present to speed up all
chemical reactions .
Solution When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved
contents is called solution.
This process involves removal of solids in solution and depends upon solubility of a
mineral in water or weak acids. On coming in contact with water many solids disintegrate
and mix up as suspension in water.
Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are affected by
this process.
So, these minerals are easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy climates and
accumulate in dry regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate and calcium magnesium
bicarbonate present in limestones are soluble in water containing carbonic acid (formed
with the addition of carbon dioxide in water), and are carried away in water as solution.
Carbon dioxide produced by decaying organic matter along with soil water greatly aids in
this reaction.
Common salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming mineral and is susceptible to this
process of solution.
Carbonation
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals.
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water, to form carbonic
acid that acts as a weak acid.
Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid and are
removed in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.
Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of the material itself or rock. Calcium sulphate
takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable than calcium sulphate.
This process is reversible and long, continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in
the rocks and may lead to their disintegration.
Oxidation and Reduction
In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides
or hydroxides.
Oxidation occurs where there is ready access to the atmosphere and oxygenated
waters. The minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese,
sulphur etc. In the process of oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the disturbance
caused by addition of oxygen. Red colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown or
yellow.
When oxidised minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place. Such conditions exist usually below the water table, in
areas of stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red colour of iron upon reduction
turns to greenish or bluish grey.
These weathering processes are inter- related. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation go
hand in hand and hasten the weathering process
Physical Weathering Processes
Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces. The applied
forces could be:
(i) gravitational forces such as over burden pressure, load and shearing stress;
(ii) expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
(iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and drying cycles.
Many of these forces are applied both at the surface and within different earth materials
leading to rock fracture. Most of the physical weathering processes are caused by thermal
expansion and pressure release.
Unloading and Expansion
Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes vertical pressure release
with the result that the upper layers of the rock expand producing disintegration of rock
masses.
Fractures will develop roughly parallel to the ground surface. In areas of curved ground
surface, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs of rock.
Exfoliation sheets resulting from expansion due to unloading and pressure release may
measure hundreds or even thousands of metres in horizontal extent. Large, smooth rounded
domes called exfoliation domes .
Temperature Changes and Expansion
Various minerals in rocks possess their own limits of expansion and contraction. With rise in
temperature, every mineral expands and pushes against its neighbour and as temperature
falls, a corresponding contraction takes place.
Because of diurnal changes in the temperatures, this internal movement among the mineral
grains of the superficial layers of rocks takes place regularly. This process is most
effective in dry climates and high elevations where diurnal temperature changes are
drastic.
Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice within pores and cracks of rocks during
repeated cycles of freezing and melting. This process is most effective at high elevations in
mid-latitudes where freezing and melting is often repeated. Glacial areas are subject to frost
wedging daily.
In this process, the rate of freezing is important. Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden
expansion and high pressure. The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks and small inter
granular fractures to become wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.
Salt Weathering:-
Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and crystallisation. Many salts like
calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and barium have a tendency to expand. Expansion
of these salts depends on temperature and their thermal properties. High temperature
ranges between 30 and 50oC of surface temperatures in deserts favour such salt
expansion.
Salt crystals in near-surface pores cause splitting of individual grains within rocks, which
eventually fall off. This process of falling off of individual grains may result in granular
disintegration or granular foliation cause splitting of individual grains within rocks, which
eventually fall off. This process of falling off of individual grains may result in granular
disintegration or granular foliation.
Salt crystallisation is most effective of all salt-weathering processes
With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks down most readily, followed by limestone,
sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING
Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of minerals and ions from the
weathering environment and physical changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in exposing
the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in mixing
and creating new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth materials. Decaying plant
and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids which enhance
decay and solubility of some elements. Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure on the earth
materials mechanically breaking them apart.
SPECIAL EFFECTS OF WEATHERING
Exfoliation- Exfoliation is a result but not a process. Flaking off of more or less curved sheets of
shells from over rocks or bedrock results in smooth and rounded surfaces. Exfoliation can occur
due to expansion and contraction induced by temperature changes. Exfoliation domes and tors
result due to unloading and thermal expansion respectively.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
Weathering processes are responsible for breaking down the rocks into
smaller fragments and preparing the way for formation of not only regolith and soils,
but also erosion and mass movements.
Biomes and bio- diversity is basically a result of forests (vegetation) and forests
depend upon the depth of weathering mantles.
Erosion cannot be significant if the rocks are not weathered.
That means, weathering aids mass wasting, erosion and reduction of relief and
changes in landforms are a consequence of erosion.
Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the enrichment and concentrations of
certain valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium, copper etc., which are of great
importance for the national economy.
Weathering is an important process in the formation of soils.
When rocks undergo weathering, some materials are removed through chemical or
physical leaching by groundwater and thereby the concentration of remaining (valuable)
materials increases. Without such a weathering taking place, the concentration of the
same valuable material may not be sufficient and economically viable to exploit, process
and refine. This is what is called enrichment.
MASS MOVEMENTS
These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the direct
influence of gravity. That means, air, water or ice do not carry debris with them from place to
place but on the other hand the debris may carry with it air, water or ice.
Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and the products of weathering. So,
weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass movements. Mass
movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over unweathered materials.
mass movements do not come under erosion though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of
materials from one place to another.
Several activating causes precede mass movements. They are : (i) removal of support from
below to materials above through natural or artificial means; (ii) increase in gradient and height
of slopes; (iii) overloading through addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling; (iv)
overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope materials; (v) removal
of material or load from over the original slope surfaces; (vi) occurrence of earthquakes,
explosions or machinery; (vii) excessive natural seepage; (viii) heavy drawdown of
water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers leading to slow outflow of water from under the
slopes or river banks; (ix) indis- criminate removal of natural vegetation.
Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost growth and other causes), flow and slide are the three
forms of movements.
Slow mass Movements
Creep is one type under this category which can occur on moderately steep, soil covered
slopes. Movement of materials is extremely slow and imperceptible except through
extended observation.
Materials involved can be soil or rock debris.
fence posts, telephone poles lean downslope from their vertical position that is due to the
creep effect.
Depending upon the type of material involved, several types of creep viz., soil creep, talus
creep, rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc., can be identified.
Also included in this group is solifluction which involves slow downslope flowing soil mass or
fine grained rock debris saturated or lubricated with water.
This process is quite common in moist temperate areas where surface melting of deeply
frozen ground and long continued rain respectively, occur requently. When the upper
portions get saturated and when the lower parts are impervious to water percolation, flowing
occurs in the upper parts.
Rapid Movements
These movements are mostly prevalent in humid climatic regions and occur over gentle to
steep slopes.
Movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle terraces or
hillsides is known as earthflow.
Quite often, the materials slump making step- like terraces and leaving arcuate scarps at their
heads and an accumulation bulge at the toe.
When slopes are steeper, even the bedrock especially of soft sedimentary rocks like shale or
deeply weathered igneous rock may slide downslope.
mudflow.-In the absence of vegetation cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of
weathered materials get saturated with water and either slowly or rapidly flow down along
definite channels. It looks like a stream of mud within a valley. When the mudflows emerge
out of channels onto the piedmont or plains, they can be very destructive engulfing roads,
bridges and houses. Mudflows occur frequently on the slopes of erupting or recently erupted
volcanoes. Volcanic ash, dust and other fragments turn into mud due to heavy rains and flow
down as tongues or streams of mud causing great destruction to human habitations.
debris avalanche, which is more characteristic of humid regions with or without vegetation
cover and occurs in narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris avalanche can be much
faster than the mudflow. Debris avalanche is similar to snow avalanche.
Landslides -These are relatively rapid and perceptible movements. The materials
involved are relatively dry. The size and shape of the detached mass depends on
the nature of discontinuities in the rock, the degree of weathering and the
steepness of the slope.
Depending upon the type of movement of materials several types are identified in
this category.
Slump is slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with
respect to the slope over which the movement takes place
Rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without backward rotation of mass is known
as debris slide. Debris fall is nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical or
overhanging face.
Sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces is rockslide. Over
steep slopes, rock sliding is very fast and destructive. Rock fall is free falling of rock blocks
over any steep slope keeping itself away from the slope. Rock falls occur from the
superficial layers of the rock face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from rockslide which
affects materials up to a substantial depth.
In our country, debris avalanches and landslides occur very frequently in the
Himalayas. There are many reasons for this.
the Himalayas are tectonically active. They are mostly made up of sedimentary rocks and
unconsolidated and semi-consolidated deposits. The slopes are very steep. Compared to the
Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the Western Ghats
along the west coast are relatively tectonically stable and are are mostly made up of very hard
rocks;
but still, debris avalanches and landslides occur though not as frequently as in the Himalayas, in these hills. Why?
Many slopes are steeper with almost vertical cliffs and escarpments in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris. Mechanical
weathering due to temperature changes and ranges is pronounced. They receive heavy amounts of rainfall over
short periods.( 2013 mains question)
The erosion
can be defined as “application of the kinetic energy associated with the agent to the surface
of the land along which it moves”.Kinetic energy is computed as KE = 1/2 mv2
where ‘m’ is the mass and ‘v’ is the velocity.
The work of the other two agents of erosionwaves and ground water is not controlled by
climate. In case of waves it is the location along the interface of litho and hydro sphere
coastal region — that will determine the work of waves, whereas the work of ground water is
determined more by the lithological character of the region.
If the rocks are permeable and soluble and water is available only then karst topography
develops.
.Deposition
It is a consequence of erosion. The erosional agents loose their velocity and hence energy
on gentler slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves. In other
words, deposition is not actually the work of any agent.
The coarser materials get deposited first and finer ones later. By deposition depressions get filled up. The same
erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act as aggradational or depositional
agents also.
SOIL FORMATION
Soil and Soil Contents
1. A pedologist who studies soils defines soil as a collection of natural bodies on the earth’s
surface containing living and/or dead matter and supporting or capable of supporting plants.
2. Soil is a dynamic medium in which many chemical, physical and biological activities go on
constantly.
3. Soil is a result of decay, it is also the medium for growth. It is a changing and developing
body.
4. It has many characteristics that fluctuate with the seasons. It may be alternatively cold and
warm or dry and moist. Biological activity is slowed or stopped if the soil becomes too cold or
too dry
Process of Soil Formation
1. Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on weathering. It is this weathering mantle
(depth of the weathered material) which is the basic input for soil to form.
2. the weathered material or transported deposits are colonised by bacteria and other
inferior plant bodies like mosses and lichens. Also, several minor organisms may
take shelter within the mantle and deposits. The dead remains of organisms and plants
help in humus accumulation.
3. Minor grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and trees will start growing through
seeds brought in by birds and wind. Plant roots penetrate down, burrowing animals
bring up particles, mass of material becomes porous and sponge- like with a capacity to
retain water and to permit the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a complex
mixture of mineral and organic products forms.
Pedology is soil science. A pedologist is a soil-scientist.
Soil-forming Factors
Five basic factors control the formation of soils:
(i) parent material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate;
(iv) biological activity; (v) time. In fact soil forming factors act in union and affect the
action of one another.
Parent Material
1. Parent material is a passive control factor in soil formation. Parent materials can be
any in- situ or on-site weathered rock debris (residual soils) or transported deposits
(transported soils).
2. Soil formation depends upon the texture (sizes of debris) and structure (disposition of
individual grains/particles of debris) as well as the mineral and chemical composition
of the rock debris/deposits.
3. Nature and rate of weathering and depth of weathering mantle are important
considerations under parent materials. There may be differences in soil over
similar bedrock and dissimilar bedrocks may have similar soils above them. But
when soils are very young and have not matured these show strong links
4. with the type of parent rock. Also, in case of some limestone areas, where the weathering
processes are specific and peculiar, soils will show clear relation with the parent rock.
Topography
1. Topography like parent materials is another passive control factor.
2. The influence of topography is felt through the amount of exposure of a surface covered
by parent materials to sunlight and the amount of surface and sub-surface drainage over
and through the parent materials.
3. Soils will be thin on steep slopes and thick over flat upland areas. Over gentle slopes where
erosion is slow and percolation of water is good, soil formation is very favourable.
4. Soils over flat areas may develop a thick layer of clay with good accumulation of organic
matter giving the soil dark colour. In middle latitudes, the south facing slopes exposed to
sunlight have different conditions of vegetation and soils and the north facing slopes with cool,
moist conditions have some other soils and vegetation.
Climate
The climatic elements involved in soil development are :
(i) moisture in terms of its intensity, frequency and duration of precipitation -
evaporation and humidity;
(ii) temperature in terms of seasonal and diurnal variations.
Precipitation gives soil its moisture content which makes the chemical and biological
activities possible.
Excess of water helps in the downward transportation of soil components through the soil
(eluviation) and deposits the same down below (illuviation). In climates like wet equatorial
rainy areas with high rainfall, not only calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium etc. but also
a major part of silica is removed from the soil.
Removal of silica from the soil is known as desilication. In dry climates, because of high
temperature, evaporation exceeds precipitation and hence ground water is brought up to the
surface by capillary action and in the process the water evaporates leaving behind salts in the
soil. Such salts form into a crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical climates and in
areas with intermediate precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate nodules (kanker) are
formed.
Temperature acts in two ways — increasing or reducing chemical and biological activity.
Chemical activity is increased in higher temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures (with
an exception of carbonation) and stops in freezing conditions. That is why, tropical soils with
higher temperatures show deeper profiles and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain largely
mechanically broken materials.
Biological Activity-
The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy the parent materials from the beginning and
also at later stages help in adding organic matter, moisture retention, nitrogen etc.
Dead plants provide humus, the finely divided organic matter of the soil. Some organic acids
which form during humification aid in decomposing the minerals of the soil parent
materials.
Intensity of bacterial activity shows up differences between soils of cold and warm
climates. Humus accumulates in cold climates as bacterial growth is slow.
With undecomposed organic matter because of low bacterial activity, layers of peat develop in
sub-arctic and k6tundra climates.
In humid tropical and equatorial climates, bacterial growth and action is intense and dead
vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving very low humus content in the soil.
Further, bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous nitrogen from the air and convert
it into a chemical form that can be used by plants. This process is known as nitrogen
fixation. Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants and
fixes nitrogen beneficial to the host plant.
The influence of large animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents etc., is mechanical, but,
it is nevertheless important in soil formation as they rework the soil up and down. In case of
earthworms, as they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of the soil that comes out of their
body changes.
Time
Time is the third important controlling factor in soil formation. The length of time the soil
forming processes operate, determines maturation of soils and profile development.
A soil becomes mature when all soil-forming processes act for a sufficiently long time
developing a profile.
Soils developing from recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are considered young and
they exhibit no horizons or only poorly developed horizons.
No specific length of time in absolute terms can be fixed for soils to develop and mature
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